British Museum's Parthenon marbles

 

The Greeks gave us the Olympics. Let them have their marbles

 

http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2012/may/20/henry-porter-repatriate-parthenon-marbles

 

 

 JUPITER LAGONISI /ATHENS 7/7/2009


WIKIPEDIA

Mythology

Jupiter, woodcut from a 1550 edition of Guido Bonatti's Liber Astronomiae.

The planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can occasionally be seen in the daytime when the sun is low.^[131] To the Babylonians, this object represented their god Marduk. They used the roughly 12-year orbit of this planet along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac.^[23][132]
The Romans named it after Jupiter (Latin: Iuppiter, Iūpiter) (also called Jove), the principal god of Roman mythology, whose name comes from the Proto-Indo-European vocative compound *Dyēu-pəter (nominative: *Dyēus-pətēr, meaning "O Father Sky-God", or "O Father Day-God").^[133] In turn, Jupiter was the counterpart to the mythical Greek Zeus (Ζεύς), also referred to as Dias (Δίας), the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek.


MYTHOLOGY



In the ancient Greek religion, Zeus (Ancient Greek: Ζεύς, Zeús; Modern Greek: Δίας, Días) is the "Father of Gods and men" (πατὴρ ἀνδρῶν τε θεῶν τε, patḕr andrōn te theōn te)^[3] who rules the Olympians of Mount Olympus as a father rules the family. He is the god of sky and thunder in Greek mythology. His Roman counterpart is Jupiter and Etruscan counterpart is Tinia.
Zeus is the child of Cronus and Rhea, and the youngest of his siblings. In most traditions he is married to Hera, although, at the oracle of Dodona, his consort is Dione: according to the Iliad, he is
the father of Aphrodite by Dione.^[2] He is known for his erotic escapades. These resulted in many godly and heroic offspring, including Athena, Apollo and Artemis, Hermes, Persephone (by Demeter), Dionysus, Perseus, Heracles, Helen of Troy, Minos, and the Muses (by Mnemosyne); by Hera, he is usually said to have fathered Ares, Hebe and Hephaestus.[4] 

•  The constellation URSA MAJOR/Big Dipper LAGONISI/ATHENS

  October 6, 2012 at 11:38am · Edited · Like
• 
  

  
  
  
   WIKIPEDIA
  
  THE MYTH
  The great Zeus fell madly in love with Callisto, the beautiful huntress nymph inhabitant of the forests of Arcadia. The father of the gods seduced the nymph, and she became pregnant. Upon learning what happened Hera, wife of Zeus, prey of jealousy, turned Calisto into a bear (Great Bear OR URSA MAYOR).
  Over time, Arkas, the son of Calisto, also a hunter, one day came across a bear and wanted to kill it, not knowing it was his mother. Zeus intervened and revealed the truth. For that not to happen again, Zeus took Callisto, turned into a bear, from her tail and threw her into the sky, also transformed Arkas into a bear and put him in heaven with her mother to keep her company. Arkas is the constellation of Ursa Minor (the Little Bear).
  But Hera, wife of Zeus, was not happy and asked her brother, Poseidon, to not allow the heavenly bears, Calisto and Arkas, to approach to his marine domains. Then, The Great Bear and the Little Bear never disappear beneath the sea.
  
  
  
  

  WIKIPEDIA 
  
    This constellation is identified with the Great Bear from the time of Homer, who already quoted it in his major works, The Iliad and The Odyssey calling it Bear and Cart.

  October 6, 2012 at 1:26pm · Like

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Antikythera mechanism

WIKIPEDIA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism

The Antikythera mechanism (pron.: /ˌæntɨkɨˈθɪərə/ ANT-i-ki-THEER-ə or /ˌæntɨˈkɪθərə/ ANT-i-KITH-ə-rə) is an ancient analog computer[1][2] designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was recovered in 1900–1901 from the Antikythera wreck,[3] but its significance and complexity were not understood until a century later. Jacques Cousteau visited the wreck in 1978[4] but, although he found new dating evidence, he did not find any additional remains of the Antikythera mechanism. The construction has been dated to the early 1st century BC. Technological artifacts approaching its complexity and workmanship did not appear again until the 14th century AD, when mechanical astronomical clocks began to be built in Western Europe.[5]

The Antikythera mechanism is displayed at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a reconstruction made and donated to the museum by Derek de Solla Price

All of the mechanism's instructions are written in Koine Greek,[7][not in citation given] and the consensus among scholars is that the mechanism was made in the Greek-speaking world. One hypothesis is that the device was constructed at an academy founded by the Stoic philosopher Posidonius on the Greek island of Rhodes, which at the time was known as a center of astronomy and mechanical engineering; this hypothesis further suggests that the mechanism may have been designed by the astronomer Hipparchus, since it contains a lunar mechanism which uses Hipparchus's theory for the motion of the Moon. However, recent findings of The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project suggest that the concept for the mechanism originated in the colonies of Corinth, which might imply a connection with Archimedes.

See also:         http://www.giovannipastore.it/ISTRUZIONI.htm          

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1zEOeflnPKY


 http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&NR=1&v=cjtgQ2-kW4c

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UpLcnAIpVRA


SEE:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L1CuR29OajI

Paradigm=بارادايم

“παράδειγμα”=Paradigm=بارادايم

WIKIPEDIA

The Oxford English Dictionary defines the basic meaning of the term paradigm as "a pattern or model, an exemplar". The historian of science Thomas Kuhn gave it its contemporary meaning when he adopted the word to refer to the set of practices that define a scientific discipline at any particular period of time. In his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Kuhn defines a scientific paradigm as: "universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions for a community of researchers,[1] i.e.,

Etymology

Paradigm comes from Greek "παράδειγμα" (paradeigma), "pattern, example, sample"[21] from the verb "παραδείκνυμι" (paradeiknumi), "exhibit, represent, expose"[22] and that from "παρά" (para), "beside, beyond"[23] + "δείκνυμι" (deiknumi), "to show, to point out".[24]
The original Greek term παράδειγμα (paradeigma) was used in Greek texts such as Plato's Timaeus (28A) as the model or the pattern that the Demiurge (god) used to create the cosmos. The term had a technical meaning in the field of grammar: the 1900 Merriam-Webster dictionary defines its technical use only in the context of grammar or, in rhetoric, as a term for an illustrative parable or fable. In linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure used paradigm to refer to a class of elements with similarities.

In Islamic Astronomy History

1025-1450

“”””An illustration from al-Biruni's astronomical works, explains the different phases of the moon.
The period when a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. The period began as the Muslim astronomers began questioning the framework of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. These criticisms, however, remained within the geocentric framework and followed Ptolemy's astronomical paradigm; one historian described their work as "a reformist project intended to consolidate Ptolemaic astronomy by bringing it into line with its own principles."[18]””””

Orion=أوريون

Orion=أوريون

WIKIPEDIA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_%28constellation%29

Orion, sometimes subtitled The Hunter, is a prominent constellation located on the celestial equator and visible throughout the world. It is one of the most conspicuous, and most recognizable constellations in the night sky.[1] Its name refers to Orion, a hunter in Greek mythology. Its brightest stars are Beta (Rigel) and Alpha (Betelgeuse), a blue-white and red supergiant respectively. Many other of the brightest stars in the constellation are hot blue supergiant stars.

The Babylonian star catalogues of the Late Bronze Age name Orion ^MULSIPA.ZI.AN.NA,[note 1] "The Heavenly Shepherd" or "True Shepherd of Anu" - Anu being the chief god of the heavenly realms.

The Bible mentions Orion three times, naming it "Kesil" (כסיל, literally – fool)

Orion's current name derives from Greek mythology, in which Orion was a gigantic hunter of primordial times.[25] Some of these myths relate to the constellation; one story tells that Orion was killed by a giant scorpion; the gods raised him and the Scorpion to the skies, as Scorpio/Scorpius. Yet other stories say Orion was chasing the Pleiades.[26]

The constellation is mentioned in Horace's Odes (Ode 3.27.18), Homer's Odyssey (Book 5, line 283) and Iliad, and Virgil's Aeneid (Book 1, line 535)

In ancient Egypt, the constellation of Orion was known to represent Osiris, who, after being killed by his evil brother Set, was revived by his wife Isis to live immortal among the stars.[27]

In medieval Muslim astronomy, Orion was known as al-jabbar "the giant" الجبار

Syria=سوريا

Syria=سوريا

WIKIPEDIA

The name Syria is derived from the ancient Greek name for Syrians: Σύριοι, Sýrioi, or Σύροι, Sýroi, which the Greeks applied without distinction to the Assyrians.[11][12] A number of modern scholars argued that the Greek word related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, ultimately derived from the Akkadian Aššur.[13] Others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon.[14] However, the discovery of the Çineköy inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria.

“”The Assyrian people,[25] most commonly known as Assyrians and other later names, such as: Ashuriyun, Atorayeh and Syriacs, (see names of Syriac Christians), are a distinct ethnic group whose origins lie in ancient Mesopotamia. They are Semitic people, who speak and write distinct dialects of Eastern Aramaic exclusive to Mesopotamia and its immediate surroundings.””

“”Assur (also spelled Ashur, from Assyrian ���� Aššur; Aramaic: ܐܬܘܪ‎ Aṯur; Hebrew: אַשּׁוּר Aššûr; Arabic: آشور‎ Ašur), was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria.””

“”The Çineköy inscription is a Hieroglyphic Luwian-Phoenician bilingual, uncovered from Çineköy, Adana Province, Turkey (ancient Cilicia), dating to the 8th century BC. Originally published by Tekoglu and Lemaire (2000),[1] it was more recently the subject of a 2006 paper published in the Journal of Near Eastern Studies, in which the author, Robert Rollinger, lends support to the age-old debate of the name "Syria" being derived from "Assyria" (see Etymology of Syria).””

“”Eventually, the Persians took Syria as part of their hegemony of Southwest Asia; this dominion was transferred to the Ancient Macedonians and Greeks after Alexander the Great's conquests and the Seleucid Empire. The capital of this Empire (founded in 312 BC) was situated at Antioch, part of historical Syria, but just inside the Turkish border today. Pompey the Great captured Antioch in 64 BC, turning Syria into a Roman province. Thus control of this region passed to the Romans and then the Byzantines.[17]””

“”The Ummayad dynasty was then overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in 750, who moved the capital of empire to Baghdad. Arabic — made official under Ummayad rule — became the dominant language, replacing Greek and Aramaic in the Abbasid era.””

N.B. This means that the Greek language was in use in this area for almost 1000 years.

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Αλμαγέστη=Almagest=المجسطي

Wiktionary

Etymology

Arabic المجسطي (al-majisṭī, “almagest”), which is an addition of the Arabic definite article to a transliteration of Ancient Greek μεγίστη (“greatest”)

WIKIPEDIA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest

Η Αλμαγέστη αποτελεί το μεγαλύτερο και σημαντικότερο αστρονομικό σύγγραμμα της Αρχαιότητας, η αυθεντία του οποίου διατηρήθηκε μέχρι τον δέκατο έκτο αιώνα. Αποτελεί την κύρια πηγή στην οποία ανατρέχουν οι αστρονόμοι μέχρι και σήμερα για ιστορικά δεδομένα, καθόσον υπήρξε ο βασικός αστρονομικός οδηγός για περίπου μιάμιση χιλιετία.

The Almagest is a 2nd-century mathematical and astronomical treatise on the apparent motions of the stars and planetary paths. Written in Greek by Claudius Ptolemy, a Roman era scholar of Egypt, it is one of the most influential scientific texts of all time, with its geocentric model accepted for more than twelve hundred years from its origin in Hellenistic Alexandria, in the medieval Byzantine and Islamic worlds, and in Western Europe through the Middle Ages and early Renaissance until Copernicus.

The Almagest is the critical source of information on ancient Greek astronomy. It has also been valuable to students of mathematics because it documents the ancient Greek mathematician Hipparchus's work, which has been lost. Hipparchus wrote about trigonometry, but because his works are no longer extant, mathematicians use Ptolemy's book as their source for Hipparchus' works and ancient Greek trigonometry in general.

The treatise's conventional Greek title is Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις (Mathēmatikē Syntaxis), and the treatise is also known by the Latin form of this, Syntaxis mathematica

Claudius Ptolemy ( /ˈtɒləmi/; Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος, Klaudios Ptolemaios; Latin: Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD 90 – AD 168) was a Greek-Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in Greek.[1] He was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology.[2][3] He lived in Egypt under Roman rule, and is believed to have been born in the town of Ptolemais Hermiou in the Thebaid

Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, at least three of which were of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, "The Great Treatise", originally Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, "Mathematical Treatise"). The second is the Geography, which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the astrological treatise known sometimes in Greek as the Apotelesmatika (Ἀποτελεσματικά), more commonly in Greek as the Tetrabiblos (Τετράβιβλος "Four books"), and in Latin as the Quadripartitum (or four books) in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day.

ONLINE ETYMOLOGY DICTIONARY

almagest (n.)

late 14c., title of a treatise on astronomy by Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria, extended in Middle English to other works on astrology or astronomy, from Old French almageste (13c.), from Arabic al majisti, from al "the" + Greek megiste "the greatest (composition)," from fem. of megistos, superlative of megas "great" (see mickle). Originally titled in Greek Megale syntaxis tes astronomios "Great Work on Astronomy;" Arab translators in their admiration altered this.

Greek alphabet=الأبجدية اليونانية

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Greek alphabet=الأبجدية اليونانية

WIKIPEDIA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_script

The Greek alphabet emerged in the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BC[12] Another, unrelated writing system, Linear B, had been in use to write the Greek language during the earlier Mycenean period, but the two systems are separated from each other by a hiatus of several centuries, the so-called Greek Dark Ages. The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, a member of the family of closely related West Semitic scripts. The most notable change made in adapting the Phoenician system to Greek was the introduction of vowel letters. According to a definition used by some modern authors, this feature makes Greek the first "alphabet" in the narrow sense,[3] as distinguished from the purely consonantal alphabets of the Semitic type, which according to this terminology are called "abjads".[13]

Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five of them were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants /j/ (yodh) and /w/ (waw) were used for [i] (Ι, iota) and [u] (Υ, upsilon) respectively; the glottal stop consonant /ʔ/ ('aleph) was used for [a] (Α, alpha); the pharyngeal /ʕ/ (ʿayin) was turned into [o] (Ο, omicron); and the letter for /h/ (he) was turned into [e] (Ε, epsilon).


A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal /ħ/ (heth) was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long /ɛː/ (Η, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventh vowel letter for the long /ɔː/ (Ω, omega) was introduced.

Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ (phi) for /pʰ/, Χ (chi) for /kʰ/ and Ψ (psi) for /ps/. In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for /ks/ and Ψ for /kʰ/ The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate.



The Greek alphabet is the script that has been used to write the Greek language since the 8th century BC.[2] It was derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, and was in turn the ancestor of numerous other European and Middle Eastern scripts, including Cyrillic and Latin.[3] Apart from its use in writing the Greek language, both in its ancient and its modern forms, the Greek alphabet today also serves as a source of technical symbols and labels in many domains of mathematics, science and other fields.
In its classical and modern form, the alphabet has 24 letters, ordered from alpha to omega. Like Latin and Cyrillic, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter; it developed the distinction between upper case and lower case in parallel with Latin during the modern era. (The letter sigma ⟨Σ⟩ has two different lowercase forms, ⟨σ⟩ and ⟨ς⟩, with ⟨ς⟩ being used in word-final position[4] and ⟨σ⟩ elsewhere.)

Sound values and conventional transcriptions for some of the letters differ between Ancient Greek and Modern Greek usage, owing to phonological changes in the language.
In traditional ("polytonic") Greek orthography, vowel letters can be combined with several diacritics, including accent marks, so-called "breathing" marks, and the iota subscript. In common present-day usage for Modern Greek since the 1980s, this system has been simplified to a so-called "monotonic" convention.

Derived alphabets

The earliest Etruscan abecedarium, from Marsiliana d'Albegna, still almost identical with contemporary archaic Greek alphabets

The Greek alphabet was the model for various others:[3]

• The Latin alphabet, together with various other ancient scripts in Italy, adopted from an archaic form of the Greek alphabet brought to Italy by Greek colonists in the late 8th century BC, via Etruscan
• The Gothic alphabet, devised in the 4th century AD to write the Gothic language, based on a combination of Greek and Latin models
• The Glagolitic alphabet, devised in the 9th century AD for writing Old Church Slavonic
• The Cyrillic script, which replaced the Glagolitic alphabet shortly afterwards
  

It is also considered a possible ancestor of the Armenian alphabet, which in turn influenced the development of the Georgian alphabet.[17]









An 8th-century Arabic fragment preserves a text in the Greek alphabet.

Etymology

The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word alphabetum, which in turn originated in the Greek ἀλφάβητος (alphabētos), from alpha and beta, the first two letters of the Greek alphabet.^[4] Alpha and beta in turn came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet, and originally meant ox and house respectively.




History of the Greek language
(see also: Greek alphabet)

Proto-Greek (c. 3000–1600 BC)

Mycenaean (c. 1600–1100 BC)

Ancient Greek (c. 800–330 BC) Dialects: Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, Attic-Ionic, Doric, Locrian, Pamphylian, Homeric Greek, Macedonian

Koine Greek (c. 330 BC–330)

Medieval Greek (330–1453)

Modern Greek (from 1453) Dialects: Calabrian, Cappadocian, Cheimarriotika, Cretan, Cypriot, Demotic, Griko, Katharevousa, Pontic, Tsakonian, Maniot, Yevanic This box: view talk edit *Dates (beginning with Ancient Greek) from Wallace, D. B. (1996). Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. p. 12. ISBN 0310218950.

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Γαληνός=Galen=جالينوس

Ιατρική=medicine=دواء/طب

WIKIPEDIA

Galen's name Greek: Γαληνός, Galēnos comes from the adjective "γαληνός", "calm".[19]

Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (AD 129– 200/ 216), better known as Galen of Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey), was a prominent Roman (of Greek ethnicity) physician, surgeon and philosopher.[1][2][3] Arguably the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen contributed greatly to the understanding of numerous scientific disciplines, including anatomy,[4] physiology, pathology,[5] pharmacology,[6] and neurology, as well as philosophy[7] and logic.


Galen's understanding of anatomy and medicine was principally influenced by the then-current theory of humorism, as advanced by many ancient Greek physicians such as Hippocrates. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for nearly two millennia. His anatomical reports, based mainly on dissection of monkeys, especially the Barbary Macaque, and pigs, remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal work De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas Vesalius^[8][9] where Galen's physiological theory was accommodated to these new observations.^[10] Galen's theory of the physiology of the circulatory system endured until 1628, when William Harvey published his treatise entitled De motu cordis, in which he established that blood circulates, with the heart acting as a pump.^[11][12] Medical students continued to study Galen's writings until well into the 19th century. Galen conducted many nerve ligation experiments that supported the theory, which is still accepted today, that the brain controls all the motions of the muscles by means of the cranial and peripheral nervous systems.^[13]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen

Medicine in the medieval Islamic world

In the history of medicine, Islamic medicine, Arabic medicine, Greco-Arabic and Greco-Islamic refer to medicine developed in the Islamic Golden Age, and written in Arabic, the lingua franca of Islamic civilization. The emergence of Islamic medicine came about through the interactions of the indigenous Arab tradition with foreign influences.[1] Translation of earlier texts was a fundamental building block in the formation of Islamic medicine and the tradition that has been passed down.[1]

Medicine was a central part of medieval Islamic culture. Responding to circumstances of time and place, Islamic physicians and scholars developed a large and complex medical literature exploring, analyzing, and synthesizing the theory and practice of medicine.[6] Islamic medicine was initially built on tradition, chiefly the theoretical and practical knowledge developed in Arabia and was known at Muhammad's time, ancient Hellenistic medicine such as Unani, ancient Indian medicine such as Ayurveda, and the ancient Iranian Medicine of the Academy of Gundishapur. The works of ancient Greek and Roman physicians Hippocrates,[7] Galen and Dioscorides[7] also had a lasting impact on Islamic medicine.[8] Ophthalmology has been described as the most successful branch of medicine researched at the time, with the works of Ibn Al-Haitham remaining an authority in the field until early modern times.[9]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world

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Αλέξανδρος ο Μέγας=Alexander the Great=الإسكندر الأكبر

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/alexander_the_great.shtml

WIKIPEDIA

Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας, Aléxandros ho Mégasiii[›] from the Greek ἀλέξω alexo "to defend, help" + ἀνήρ aner "man"), was a king of Macedon, a state in northern ancient Greece. Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until the age of 16. By the age of thirty, he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from the Ionian Sea to the Himalayas.[1] He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history's most successful commanders.

Alexander was born on the 6th day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC, although the exact date is not known,[4] in Pella, the capital of the Ancient Greek Kingdom of Macedon.[5] He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus.[6][7][8] Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely a result of giving birth to Alexander.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great